The Nuclear Family - 1625 Words

Today the idea of the nuclear family being normal has changed. It is now common to see the mixture of two families connected by a second or subsequent marriage, with one or both partners having children from prior relationships, thereby creating half siblings. Prior to the advent of no-fault divorce, most commonly the idea of blended families included a stepmother or stepfather and mother or father, and stepchildren, born to one of the parents in a previous marriage. The previous marriage had been terminated by abandonment or death and the stepparent was seen almost as a replacement parent. With the advent of no-fault divorce and the family dynamics changing, the roles of the parents are modified, no longer is a stepparent a near replacement for an absent or deceased parent, but rather an addition to existing parents not part of a relationship but still on the scene. This can create turmoil in the family as the new couple as parent and stepparent and the children and stepchildren each try to find their own role. Some would argue it is better for the child or stepchild to be raised in a two-parent home than a single parent family. This creates a positive environment for the child. Conversely, as the relationship lines are not clearly defined, there is the possibility of confusion and uncertainty for the child, as they are not certain of the role of the step parent versus the biological parent. There is also cause for concern, as the biological dynamic of the family isShow MoreRelatedThe Nuclear Family1156 Words   |  5 PagesAmerican families have changed tremendously over the past years. Families did not only face the change in their status or social behavior, but also faced a change in their lifestyle. Now there are different types of families with different types of norms and values. Families are socially, ethnically and very expressively div erse than ever before. Back in the time, the role family was totally different, the parents were more strict than today. It could be said that the nuclear family is the nucleusRead MoreThe Nuclear Family Essay1347 Words   |  6 Pages The Diminishing Nuclear Family Hadar Mustafa Jun29, 2015 Introduction More often than not, stable and functional families serve as a prerequisite to a good society. Hence, the society’s support system for families must be flexible because needs and goals of families vary over time (Loveless, 2007). However, nuclear families face many challenges because parenting, child-rearing, and other economic responsibilities had to be done by two adults only (Bowden Smith, 2010). In thisRead MoreThe Nuclear Family Replaced the Extended Family After Industrialisation679 Words   |  3 PagesThe Nuclear Family Replaced the Extended Family After Industrialisation Talcott Parsons believed that the nuclear family developed mainly as a result of industrialisation. He thought that before the industry took over the functions of the family, the families were extended units of production. This means that the work and home lives were combined and so each family member taught another one skill for life such as education. Parsons says that the extended family stayed togetherRead MoreNuclear Family: Definition, Advantages Disadvantages993 Words   |  4 Pagesand elsewhere, assess the view that the nuclear family is no longer the norm. 24 marks The traditional nuclear family is defined as being a family consisting of a heterosexual couple with 2 or more dependent children (own or adopted) with a clear division of labour. Meaning the men are the instrumental role (breadwinner) and the women are the expressive role (domestic and caring/childcare). Over time this has changed and the nuclear family as become less dominant, some sociologistsRead MoreMarried with Children: The Evolution of the Nuclear Family1396 Words   |  6 Pages Constance Ahrons, a doctor who coined the term â€Å"binuclear family† once said, â€Å"Pessimists say that the family is eroding. Optimists say the family is diversifying. Both points of view are right. Families are more diverse and they are more in trouble-but not because of their diversity. The families of today-whatever their size or shape-are in crisis because our economy is failing, our national resources are shrinking, and our governmental policies to support them are inadequate.† This quote givesRead MoreThe Effects Of Nuclear Family On Modern Society950 Words   |  4 PagesOver the past few decades social scientists have been engaged debates about family change and influences in modern society, with one of the main themes being the strength and relevance of the nuclear fami ly. Those who believe that the nuclear family unit is breaking down often site the fact that social structures holding up the nuclear family, such as marriage, are collapsing ‘The chances in some societies are now less that 50-50†¦ that a child will live continuously to adult-hood with both naturalRead MoreInfluence of Nuclear Family to Development of Antisocial Behaviour795 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction A nuclear family is a family comprising of parent(s) and children. This model of family is an important aspect in modeling the future of the children. It is within the family environment that a child learns the art of socialization. The family is the first teacher of any child. Therefore, the family a child grows in has a major part to determine how a child will turn out to be later in life. A child is a product of his/her family. There has been a major evolution of the structureRead MoreWhat Does Your Family Fit The Nuclear? Essay1303 Words   |  6 PagesQuestion: To what extent does your family fit the ‘Nuclear’ family, which is still, against the evidence seen as the norm in Western society? Growing up, I never really understood what a â€Å"normal† family was supposed to look like. Before I was even born, my parents had split for good (although the were never married). I stayed primarily with my mother, and it was just the two of us for about four years, although we stayed with others along the way. I interviewed my mother about this time in herRead MoreThe Nuclear Family : America s Ideal Misery Essay1359 Words   |  6 PagesThe Nuclear Family: America’s Ideal Misery Many of us overlook the importance of something as simple as â€Å"family† because it has been something we are familiar with since our first day on this planet, never thinking twice about to topic. Truth be told, the family unit is crucial to who we are and what we value, and even in the bigger picture, the cultural importance it has on society. When we explore one of the most signature family units to date, the nuclear family, we learn its optimistic appealRead MoreExamining the View that the Traditional Nuclear Family is in Decline1344 Words   |  6 Pagesthe View that the Traditional Nuclear Family is in Decline When evaluating the view that the traditional nuclear family (of two opposite sex married parents living in a household that contains only them and their own dependant children), is in decline, I will be taking various pieces of research and evidence from Sociologists, Journalists and other sources, into consideration in order to try to determine how true this view is. The nuclear family would appear to be found

The Election Of The Electoral College Essay - 1380 Words

In this country, we hold elections every four years to select the president. The founding fathers of our country established the electoral college to give the original thirteen states a fair voice in the election process. This country electoral called the electoral college into question on more the one occasion. In the most recent election, President-elect Donald Trump won the electoral vote over Hillary Clinton. Hillary Clinton won the popular vote. This election has sent the country into an uproar and citizens of the United States are now challenging the legitimacy of the electoral college process. This paper will examine whether this process is reliable and valid when choosing the leadership of this country. The History of the Electoral College The electoral college, per Wikipedia, is a mechanism set up to select the president and vice president of the United States. (The Electoral college, 2016) It was during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that the founders established Article 2. Article 2 Section 1 details the innerworkings of the executive branch of government. The constitution states, â€Å"Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress†. (The Constitution of the United States, n.d.) The framers of the Constitution had many different ideas about how the selection of our president should go but ultimatelyShow MoreRelatedThe Election Of The Electoral College Essay1728 Words   |  7 Pagespresidential elections are based on the Electoral College. The Electoral College is combined of the house of senators, House of Representatives in every state, and the U.S. Congress which is the head. In each state, a senator and, a representative’s get one electoral vote, whosoever they cast their vote in for earned that electoral vote. Usually those Senators, and representatives cast their vote for their party’s. In my opinion, I think is unfair to citizens, that the Electoral College show no regardsRead MoreThe Election Of The Electoral College1214 Words   |  5 PagesAn Amendment to Replace the Electoral College with a Direct Popular Vote Five of the fifty-eight total United States Presidential elections in history have ended in discrepancies between the popular vote and the electoral vote; on average, the president elected into office was not actually favored by the majority of Americans almost ten percent of the time. We need to acknowledge the fact that this, along with the Electoral College system as a whole, undermines our foundation in democracy. AdditionallyRead MoreThe Election Of The Electoral College978 Words   |  4 PagesThird parties fail to achieve electoral victories and representation in modern American politics have been because of the structure of the types of the elections, the ballot rules, and the debate rules. Even if the third parties have equal standards, views, resources, etc., lacking in popularity and significance within the government may increase the chance of not being able to represent in politics. â€Å"In order to appreciate the reasons for the Electoral College, it is essential t o understand itsRead MoreThe Election Of The Electoral College2040 Words   |  9 Pagesto win the most prestigious, powerful, and coveted position in the world. With the Electoral College and the disproportionate voting power of populations, seventy-five percent of the United States population could vote for one candidate and he wouldn’t win the election. When I began my research all I knew, was that the electoral college was the system we the people used to elect the president, and that 270 electoral votes were required to win the office of presidency in the United States. I had alsoRead MoreThe American Electoral College Election1575 Words   |  7 PagesJanuary 2015 per. 1 Junior Paper The American Electoral College How would you feel if your vote essentially counted for nothing in a general election, especially if that election was for President of the United States? Well it appears to be that way with the way electors are the number one most important group of voters in any presidential election. In America, a national popular vote would clearly prevent problems such as fraud in the Electoral College. In our Nation’s history, there have beenRead MoreThe Election Process Of The Electoral College1231 Words   |  5 PagesDuring the presidential election cycle, states hold an open election in which all eligible citizens can participate. Citizens have the ability to vote for a distinct ‘ticket’, which consists of candidates for Vice President and President. Most Americans are relatively aware of this step in the voting process. What happens after this stage, though, is not as well tacit. It is at this point in the election process that the Electoral College begins to take effect. The Electoral College is used in the sameRead MorePresidential Election : Electoral College1647 Words   |  7 Pagesof U.S. presidential elections, the Electoral College has held the responsibility of choosing the nation’s next president. With 538 electors in the Electoral College, presidential candidates must win a majority of 270 votes from states across the U.S. to have victory in the general election. Forty-eight out of fifty states hold winner-take-all elections, which means that the candidate that wins the majority in each individual state wins the entirety of that state’s electoral votes. UnfortunatelyRead MoreThe Electoral College For Presidential Election System1206 Words   |  5 Pagesof policy is the use of the electoral college in our presidential election system. The electoral college is a group of individuals who each cast a direct vote for the president. The way that this works is complicated but essentially it boils down to this. Each state has a number of electoral college votes equal to the number of seats they have in the senate plus the number of seats they have in the House of Representatives for a total of 538 votes. Before each election, each party picks a group ofRead MoreModern Election Arguments Against The Electoral College1064 Words   |  5 PagesEnglish 9-8 11 April 2017 The Modern Election-Arguments Against the Electoral College The electoral college is a mash-up of ancient ideas that amalgamate in an outdated mess that doesn t make sense in the modern day. In the 2000 US election, George W. Bush won the electoral college and lost the popular vote, This proved that the electoral college has too much power in comparison to the popular vote and disproved what the founding fathers had planned for the college included all peoples having equalRead MoreDemocracy, the Electoral College and Other Methods of Election681 Words   |  3 PagesAmerica’s election system contradicts the ideas of a role-model democracy. American citizens elect the President of the United States indirectly through the Electoral College. Some Americans do not understand clearly how the Electoral College even works. I will specifically analyze the American election system and propose some alternatives that might portray America as a better democracy. Democracy, the Electoral College Other Methods of Election The 12th Amendment The Electoral College is a

Answer to exercises Free Essays

Why does the Hong Kong Government impose duties on very few types of imports? p. 151 Discuss 12. Explain how the imposition of tariffs and quotas may restrict international trade and rotect domestic industries. We will write a custom essay sample on Answer to exercises or any similar topic only for you Order Now p. 154 12. 2 ‘Free trade benefits everybody in an economy. ‘ Do you agree? Explain. Test yourself Refer to Fig. 12. 5. Explain why the supply curve after the imposition ofa unit tariff t is represented by the line abeg (Hint: Find out the quantities supplied at domestic prices below, equal to and above (Pw + t), respectively). p. 160 12. 3 Who would gain and who would lose under a quota? Fill in the following table with a in the appropriate box and account for them. Lose Reasons The importing country which imposes a quota Consumers Producers of import-competing industries The government The exporting faces a quota Producers of exports How do trade barriers imposed on the exports of the mainland of China also adversely affect Hong Kong? pp. 173-176 Exercises Multiple Choice Questions Free trade A. benefits all domestic consumers and producers. B. benefits domestic consumers of imports but harms domestic producers of import- competing industries. C. benefits domestic consumers of exports but harms domestic producers of exports. D. arms all domestic consumers and producers. Which of the following descriptions about trade barriers is INCORRECT? A. A tariff is a ax imposed on imports. B. A quota is a maximum limit imposed on the quantity of imports. C. An export subsidy is a government grant on exports. D. Exchange control is the government control over exchange rates, i. e. the prices of foreign currencies in terms of domestic currency. Which of the following is an effect of a quota? A. A quota shifts the supply curve of the imported product upwards. B. A quota reduces both domestic consumption and domestic production. C. A quota raises the quality of the imported product. D A quota raises the world price of the imported product. 4. Refer to the following diagram. The deadweight loss brought by a tariff is represented by A. Area (E + G). B. Area (H + D+ B). c. Area (B + q. Under the individual visit scheme, many individuals from the mainland of China travel to Hong Kong. This increases Hong Kongs (1) domestic exports of goods. (2) re-exports of goods. (3) exports of services. (4) imports of goods. A. (2) only B. (3) only C. (3) and (4) only D. (2) and (3) only 8. Which of the following descriptions about Hong Kongs attempts to face challenges in foreign trade is INCORRECT? A. Introduction of the Mandatory Provident Fund to improve the welfare of workers B. Improving productivity through capital investment as well as research and development C. Relocating land-intensive and labour-intensive production processes to the mainland of China and other low-cost economies D. Participating actively in international organisations and conferences to promote international trade Short Questions Country A imports Good X and exports Good Y. Suppose the world price of Good X is lower than the domestic price of Good X in Country A under autarky. With the help of TWO diagrams, compare the situation without trade and the situation with trade and show the gains from trade. Do all domestic consumers and domestic producers benefit from trade? (8 marks) b**. Suppose the world price of Good Y is higher than the domestic price of Good Y in Country A under autarky. With the help of TWO diagrams, compare the situation domestic consumers and domestic producers benefit from trade? 8 marks) With the help of a diagram, illustrate why the imposition of a quota would benefit domestic producers but harm domestic consumers and bring a deadweight loss to an economy. (8 marks) Structured Questions Trade Organization, China has to reduce its tariff on cotton. Suppose the world price f cotton remains unchanged after the tariff reduction. a. With the help ofa diagram, illustrate how the reduction in the tariff affects the domestic price, domest ic consumption, domestic production and volume of imports of cotton. (7 marks) b. How does the tariff reduction affect the consumer surplus, producer surplus, government revenue and total social surplus? (5 marks) a. Compare the effects of an increase in domestic demand on the domestic price, domestic consumption, domestic production and volume of imports if a country imposes a tariff and a quota on its imports, respectively. 12 marks) b. Would consumers prefer a tariff or a quota in the above situation? (2 marks) Answers p. 150 1. They mainly want to cut the volume of imports so as to protect their domestic industries. Moreover, imposition of duties on imported goods may raise government revenue. . The imposition of duties will raise the domestic price of imported goods, reduce the volume of imports, lower the consumer surplus of domestic consumers, but increase the producer surplus of domestic producers. 3. Many of Hong Kongs imports do not have domestic substitutes, e. g. , water, food, raw materials. Moreover, the image of a free port facilitates Hong Kongâ₠¬â„¢s negotiation with its trading partners to reduce their trade barriers. On the whole, free trade brings more benefit than harm to Hong Kong. p. 151 Discuss 12. 1 After tariffs are imposed, the domestic prices of imports rise. By the law of demand, people will buy fewer units of imports. After the imposition of quotas, the maximum quantities of imports allowed are smaller than the equilibrium quantities. As a result, the quantities of imports will drop. As people buy fewer units of imports, they buy more units of domestic goods as substitutes for imports. Hence, domestic industries are protected. p. 154 Discuss 12. 2 No. With free trade, domestic prices drop and domestic consumption rises. As a result, the consumer surplus increases, as illustrated by Area (C + E) in Fig. 12. 3. Hence, domestic consumers of imports gain. However, domestic prices drop and domestic production falls. As a result, the producer surplus decreases, as illustrated by Area C Therefore, free trade does not benefit everybody. However, on the whole, as consumers’ gains are greater than producers’ losses, the total social surplus increases, as illustrated by Area E in Fig. 12. 3. Test Yourself 12. 1 At domestic prices below (Pw + t), since the price cannot cover the cost [i. e. the world price (PW) plus tariff (t)], importers are not willing to supply the good. Only domestic producers with MC domestic price will supply. This portion of the supply curve is represented by line segment ae. Since the domestic economy is a small open economy, it cannot affect the world price (PW) no matter how many units it imports. At the domestic price of (Pw + t), since the price can cover the (constant) cost, importers are willing to supply as many units as consumers desire without raising the price. Even if demand increases, the domestic price will not rise above (Pw + t). Hence, the supply curve turns horizontal at Point e (represented by line segment eg). How to cite Answer to exercises, Papers

David Suzukis A Planet for the Taking Essay Example For Students

David Suzukis A Planet for the Taking Essay In the essay A Planet for the Taking, David Suzuki describesCanadians odd appreciation for this great natural bounty we call our own. Heis an internationally acclaimed scientist who is concerned about the welfare ofCanada. Suzukis intended audience is the Canadian population that does notrealize the grave danger they are instilling upon themselves by haphazardlytaking our resources without looking at the subsequent repercussions of theiractions. The essay is persuasive and informative. He compares various facetsof science and gives reasons why none of these fields can explain why we aredestroying nature. The organization of the essay supports the authors views well. Itbegins with general opinions about the Canadian population and is followed bymore detailed explanations. The general opinions in the beginning are well-chosen considering the audience. Suzukis tone is evident when he states Wehave both a sense of the importance of the wilderness and space in our cultureand an attitude that it is limitless and therefore we neednt worry. Thesewords suggest that we are willing to reap the rewards of our vast resources butwe fail to see the harm that we are doing, and will continue to do if we do notstop these actions. We will write a custom essay on David Suzukis A Planet for the Taking specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Although his approach for explaining his beliefs changes, Suzukis toneof great concern remains consistent throughout the essay. After his views arepresented, Suzuki begins to tell us what we have done to our country and how weare destroying it. Present day Canadians are compared to native Canadians whichsuccessfully serves its purpose in illustrating how, for centuries, people livedoff the natural resources in Canada. With the development of science andtechnology, we have developed better ways of mass harvesting resources but thesemethods are taking at a faster rate than nature can sustain.Science suggestsmeans of replacing these resources we are taking but there is no quickreplacement for ecosystems that have taken thousands of years to evolve. Following his explanations of how we have destroyed nature, Suzukidiscusses science and how society deals with it, I believe that in large partour problems rest on our faith in the power of science and technology. Thisstatement and the following sentences are used to describe how people deal withgreat developments in science and technology. Because there have been so manygreat advances in these fields in the past century, people are comfortableplacing their faith in science though scientists are still far from discoveringall of the secrets to the universe. Scientists interfere with nature withouthaving a complete understanding, subsequently harming it. All sciences attemptto explain nature but are unable to do so. Therefore, following the discoveriesof science may be more harmful than helpful. This idea about science is one ofSuzukis main goals in writing this essay. He wants to create an awareness thatjust because scientists have had many great successes, they cannot determine howto deal with everything else on the planet. Suzuki creates a good relationship with the reader from the start. Hemakes general statements about Canadians which most of the audience eitherbelieves or can relate to. The writing is persuasive but the arguments arepresented in a non- offensive manner which creates a good rapport with thereader. When Suzuki explains the scientific parts of his argument, he does soin a simplistic way which puts the reader at ease but serves its purpose inprovoking thought. The author is quite serious and certain about his topic. These feelingsare evident through his powerful writing and diction. We need a very profoundperceptual shift and soon. This is Suzukis closing sentence for the essay. His suggestion for a change in peoples perceptions is clear and direct, leavingno room for misinterpretation; he does this consistently throughout the essay. Discussing the topic with such seriousness makes it an effective, persuasiveessay. .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168 , .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168 .postImageUrl , .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168 , .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168:hover , .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168:visited , .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168:active { border:0!important; } .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168:active , .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168 .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u3d7d6c4b3b65b9a4e5630ba5b1529168:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: American Drug Abuse EssayThe essay does not contain much powerful, descriptive imagery butSuzukis powerful examples serve the same purpose. Supplying the reader withexamples to support his arguments is a valuable means of persuading the reader. By giving examples, the audience can relate to the topic and see what they havedone to nature. Examples of the various types of sciences also help theaudience to relate. Suzuki provides the reader with examples of theshortcomings of all the fields of science, helping to make the reader second-guess science. Some powerful images he does use, however, are present when hedescribes the terminology that society uses for plants and animal s, We speak ofherds of seals, of culling harvesting, stocks.' These images support thetheme of the essay because they show the way that humankind has taken overnature and how we feel as if we can control everything. It makes it seem as ifwe do not care about the environment; we are merely concerned with making moreand more money. Imagery, when used successfully, can support the aims of theessay and create more persuasion for the reader. By writing this persuasive essay, David Suzuki wanted to convince hisaudience that we are destroying our planet for our own greed. It is no longer amatter of subsistence, humans are raping the land and if they do not learn tocontrol this, it will lead to the downfall of humankind. Canadians act as ifthey are proud of their large, abundant country but then turn around and destroyit for their own wealth. This essay is persuasive, yet eloquent. It satisfiesthe authors aims in an informative and interesting manner.

9th Grade Science Fair Projects

9th Grade Science Fair Projects 9th grade is the first year of high school, so 9th graders might be competing against older students in a science fair. Even so, they stand every bit as good a chance of excelling and winning. The key to success is choosing an interesting project that doesnt necessarily take a lot of time to complete. 9th graders have a lot going on, so seek an idea that can be developed and completed over the space of a few weeks or less. The quality of the presentation is very important  since high school students are expected to be familiar with word processing programs and printers. Give some attention to the quality of the poster. Be sure to cite any references used in developing the experiment. 9th Grade Science Fair Project Ideas tooth whiteners s of chemicals to try would include hydrogen peroxide solution, dilute hydrochloric acid solution, dilute isopropyl alcohol solution, fruit juice. Some of these agents are thought to be able to loosen the seed coat surrounding the plant embryo.hair conditioner - Use a microscope to determine whether hair conditioner affects the condition of hair (either comparing brands or comparing with conditioner to without-conditioner). Try to get empirical data, such as a diameter measurement of each hair strand and the distance a strand can stretch before it breaks.What is the best way to store bread to keep it fresh the longest time? What things can you do to improve the efficiency or effectiveness of your clothes dryer or water heater or any device? For example, can you take actions or make changes that will decrease the length of time it takes your dryer to get a load of towels dry?Does listening to music while you study affect your ability to memorize facts?Does the presence of smoke in the air affect plant transpiration?Does eye color affect peripheral vision? Supposedly people with darker eyes tend to have wider pupils for a given amount of light than people with light-colored irises. If you have a more open pupil, does it give you measurably better peripheral vision? Another idea to test would be to see if you have the same peripheral vision in bright light as compared with dim light.acid snow? - You know about acid rain, but do you know the pH range of snow? If you live in an area with snow, test its pH. How does the pH of snow compare with the pH of rain from the same region?What methods of preventing soi l erosion work best? For example, what is effective at preventing erosion in your yard? What can you do to reduce noise pollution in a room? What factors contribute to noise pollution inside a residence?seed viability - Is there a test you can perform to predict whether or not a seed will germinate? What factors can you measure that might be used to construct a test?Does an external magnetic field have any noticeable effect on animals such as brine shrimp, cockroaches, or fruit flies? You could use a strip magnet and containers of sample organisms and make observations to address this question.Is the brightness of glow-in-the-dark (phosphorescent) materials affected by the light source (spectrum) used to make them glow or only by the intensity (brightness) of the light? Does the light source affect the length of time a phosphorescent material will glow?Can you affect vitamin C (or another measurable vitamin) levels in juice (or another food) by adding a preservative to the juice?What is the best thickness of insulation for preventing heat loss?Is light bulb lifespan aff ected by whether the bulb is run at full power? In other words, do dim bulbs last longer/shorter than bulbs run at their power rating? What type of box material gives you the best sound for your speaker?When comparing different brands of batteries, is the battery that lasts the longest at a high temperature the same brand that lasts the longest at a cold temperature.

Plural Nouns Forms

Plural Nouns Forms Nouns are words that indicate objects, things, places and people such as: computer, chair, beach, janitor, etc. Nouns are one of the eight parts of speech in English. Nouns that speak about objects you can count have two forms: the singular and the plural. This guide to the plural noun forms will help you understand how to make regular and irregular noun plurals. There are also irregular verb forms in English that need to be studied, as well as changes in the comparative and superlative forms that are very similar to the plural changes in noun forms. Regular Noun Plural Forms - Just Add S For most nouns, just add s to the end of the noun. singular noun s plural noun computer - computersbag - bagsbook - bookstable - tableshouse - housescar - carsstudent - studentsplace - placesetc. Irregular Noun Plural Forms - Nouns Ending in Consonant Y Nouns that end in a consonant y drop the y and add ies to the end of the noun. singular noun - y ies plural noun baby - babiesparty - partiespaddy - paddieshobby - hobbieslady - ladiesferry - ferriessherry - sherriesdandy - dandiesetc. Irregular Noun Plural Forms - Nouns Ending in SH, Ch, S, X, or Z For nouns that end in sh, ch, s, x, or z, add es to the end of the word. singular noun ending in sh, ch, s, x or z es plural noun beach - beachesbox - boxeschurch - churchesbuzz - buzzesloss - lossesfox - foxeswatch - watchesdress - dressesetc. Irregular Noun Plural Forms - Nouns Ending in O Many nouns that end in o proceeded by a consonant require an e before s to be placed at the end of the word. Unfortunately, there are also nouns that end in o that do not require changes. To begin with, here are examples of nouns that do need to change. singular noun ending in consonant o es plural noun tomato - tomatoeshero - heroeszero - zeroespotato - potatoesecho - echoesetc. Other nouns that that end in o proceeded by a consonant DO NOT require an e before s to be placed at the end of the word. Nouns ending in o proceeded by a vowel do not change. kilo - kilosradio - radioslogo - logospiano - pianossolo - soloscargo - cargoshalo - halosetc. Unfortunately, there is no clear rule as to when to add an es or just s. These plurals need to be learnt on their own. Irregular Noun Plural Forms - Nouns Ending in LF Nouns ending in the consonant combination lf drop the lf and end in ves. singular noun ending in consonant lf - lf ves plural noun leaf - leaveshalf - halvesself - selveswife - wivesknife - knivescalf - calvesshelf - shelveswolf - wolvesetc. Irregular Noun Plural Forms - Different Spellings There are a number of irregular plurals that change spellings in different ways such as man to men and ouse to ice here are some of the most common: man - menwoman - womenchild - childrenfoot - feetperson - peoplemouse - micetooth - teethdie - diceetc. Animal Plurals There are many animals that have irregular plural forms. Some animals do not change when forming the plural. deer - deerfish - fishsheep - sheeptrout - troutsquid - squid Other animals change form in the plural. mouse - micegoose - geeseox - oxenlouse - lice Irregular Noun Plural Forms - Nouns That Remain the Same in Singular and Plural Nouns that do not have a plural form are also known as uncountable or non-count nouns. These nouns include concepts, materials, liquids as well as others. concepts: advice, fun, honesty, information, ambition, etc.materials: steel, wood, plastic, stone, concrete, wool, etc.liquids: water, wine, beer, soda, oil, gasoline, etc. Still other nouns remain the same whether in the singular or plural. These nouns take the plural conjugation of tenses, but remain the same spelling. Here are some examples with sentences to indicate the difference between singular and plural usage. crossroads - crossroads There is a crossroads at the end of this street.There are a number of crossroads between here and downtown. series - series The new series about a robot is great.There are four new series on ABC this month.

STAT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

STAT - Essay Example Thus, we will look at Census records for each decade to discover whether the percent increase or decrease within the city (primarily Manhattan, though also some of the other districts) has gone up or gone down. This will be followed up with other possible variables or explanations and reasoning behind the end-result. There has been much speculation already about the effects of the terror attacks. The overall conclusion seems to be, in a more conceptual sense, that it "united" the country. My group was more curious about what the direct affects were. In the moment, the attack was successful. It created mass panic and many people, not just Americans, felt a great sense of shock, fear, and then loss. After the loss of the Twin Towers, which second only to the Statue of Liberty and the Empire State Building was a symbolic representation of New York, the city lost one of its great monuments. If the Twin Towers stood for New York, would their loss or destruction symbolize the loss or destruction of the city? As this paper will focus on the affect that 9/11 had in regards to population, this will be a somewhat limited investigation, only focusing on aspects that may represent residential situations. A large handful of articles have reported and presented the fears, substantiated or not, that many residents may have felt regarding the attacks. The Federal Government added cancer to a list of health problems caused by 9/11, with suggestion that debris from the Twin Towers was carcinogenic. Issues such as this could have serious effects on the population in Manhattan, especially in the Ground Zero area. Thus, according to The New York Times, "New York City health department [initiated] studies [which have] found no clear link between cancer and the dust, debris and fumes released by the burning wreckage of the twin towers" (Hartocollis). The study

Galileo and Aristotle on falling bodies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Galileo and Aristotle on falling bodies - Essay Example Aristotle explained how objects fall, he stated that every object has a natural place and if the object is moved it will move back to the natural place. Aristotle was among the first early scientists to quantitatively think about speed of a moving body he came up with to assertions on natural motion of free fall 1. Speed of a falling body is proportional to its weight i.e. heavier bodies fall faster than light ones. 2. Speed of a free falling body is inversely proportional to the density of the medium it is falling through Aristotle did not put into consideration a vacuum because it would be incompatible with his thinking. The inference deduced from his theories shows that objects experience less resistance with increase in speed therefore, in a vacuum an object would move infinitely fast. A study of moving objects led Aristotle to the conclusion that velocity, for a given force was inversely proportional to the density of the medium. In modern science this is v=k/d where v, speed is a function of density d and k is a function of proportionality. He explained acceleration as an objects response to its natural place. He states that since the object ’knows‘it’s final destination it keeps going faster until it gets there. To Aristotle two objects of different kinds in a similar medium would not have similar acceleration as the heavier object overcomes resistance of the medium and would thus fall faster than the lighter object. Aristotle obtained his results from pure observation he did not subject any of his theories to any experimental or mathematical scrutiny he also did not have any methods at the time to create a vacuum or reduce friction in order for him to notice dependency on density. Frictionless uniform motion was not analyzed by Aristotle, he considered motion under constant force acted upon by friction, and he concluded that a constant force must be applied on a body to overcome effects of friction force. Galileo - He was the first p erson to publicly and experimentally observe and prove discrepancies with Aristotle’s predictions one of his first experiments was on motion of bodies on free fall it was a challenge to Aristotle’s motion theories, Galileo’s approach to science was different from Aristotle’s he can be referred to as the father of modern science, he concentrated on describing a problem mathematically first, before coming up with a conclusion , he assembled relevant information and created a coherent pattern to disapprove Aristotle’s assertions. He carried out quantitative results rather than describing observations qualitatively, he speculated that in addition to gravitational force acting on a free falling object there was a counter upward force exerted on a falling object by the medium it is falling through. Galileo came up with experiments to show this phenomenon. He used water as the medium to make motion of object through it relatively slow in order for him to record time taken by each object. With this experiment he discovered 1. Heavy objects that are streamlined reached the bottom of experimenting tank at approximately the same time only a little bit longer than time taken to cover a similar height in air 2. Lighter and less streamlined objects took more time to reach

Structures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Structures - Essay Example The bridge was built to a scale of 1 to 40 with total clearance span of 500mm, utilizing craft sticks and PVA glue. After building of the bridge, it was tested to eliminate fatigue failure via application of the mid span within a laboratory setting. Moreover, the collapse is the position at which the underlying structure cannot support further escalation of load or a deflection beyond 30mm. The prevailing truss bridge passes the failure test. Moreover, the greatest load of 3.5kN was the second load applied to any bridge test, which excessively exceeds the needed load of 98N by the corresponding factor of 36. The prevailing weight ratio of 11.7 was compared satisfactorily with the existing supplementary bridges tested to enable successful design. Nevertheless, the graph of the load against deflection was not ideal thus depicting defects within the construction as depicted by the failure of the bridge. Advanced bridge possess relatively greater links amidst the prevailing craft sticks by utilizing sturdier clamps thus will improved the bridge by offering greater quality links amidst the underlying middle trusses and the corresponding bottom beams to avert it from slipping out. Bridges are observable accomplishments of engineering presently. Originally, the bridges composed of relatively simpler structures purely made from easily reachable natural resources. The natural resources entail timber, stone and dirt, which were operational though they had shorter life span thus resulting to weak structural bridges. Conversely, modern designs for trusses possess greater spaces to be spanned. A truss design is normally favorable to numerous engineers in modern world, since they are affordable and have high structural integrity. Comprehending structural behavior of any bridge is a significant aspect of engineering. This is because it aids in comprehension of the concepts of load transfer via the structure by tension and compression and corresponding equilibrium

Diagnosis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)

Diagnosis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) Systemic lupus erythematosus is a multi-systemic autoimmune disease that was first described in 1941, by Klemperer and colleagues (Gonzalez-Buitrago and Gonzalez, 2006). It is a disease that can attack almost any organ or system in the body, where imbalances in self tolerance create an abnormal immune response to self proteins resulting in autoimmunity (Male et al, 2006). SLE is a disease that has a strong correlation to defects in apoptosis; however no specific cause of the disease is known (Arbuckle et al, 2003). The prevalence of the disease is worldwide; however it commonly affects people of African descent, particularly in Europe and Northern America (Kumar et al, 2009). Environmental triggers are known to contribute to the disease manifestation; although genetic links have also shown association with all HLA classes (I, II, III) on chromosome 6. Other transcription factors such as IRF5, STAT and proteins such as PTPN22 have also been seen to contribute to the manifestation (Mal e et al, 2006). SLE is particularly common between the ages of 15-50, where patients present with positive antinuclear antibodies (ANA). ANA are a group of heterogenous antibodies that are capable of binding to components of the nucleus, resulting in damage of DNA. The initial screening method for patients with AIDs such as SLE is via the ANA test. 80-90% of patients with SLE present with a positive ANA (Bonilla et al, 2007), however other AID such as Sjà ¶grens syndrome, Rheumatoid arthritis, Autoimmune hepatitis, Scleroderma and Polymyositis Dermatomyositis, also see positive results. Antigen specific assays such as extractable nuclear antigen (ENA) and double stranded DNA (dsDNA) must then be performed to confirm a diagnosis, as approximately 70% of patients with SLE have antibodies to dsDNA (Rahman Isenberg, 2008). Positive results can be seen within the aging population as the immune system begins to deteriorate. Nilsson et al, (2006) supports this and found that positive ANA results were fo und particularly in elderly patients over 85 years. 90% of patients with SLE are women, suggesting a hormonal link (Rahman et al, 2008). Hormonal imbalances are seen in women with SLE, thus it becomes difficult to maintain immune tolerance. Increased oestrogen levels result in increased antibody production and Th2 response, whilst decreased levels of androgens depress the response resulting in an abnormal immune response (Danchenko et al, 2006). 1.2 The clinical significance of ANA testing The diagnosis of SLE is dependent on a variety of factors including clinical details, family history, age, race, sex, medication and infection (Stinton Fritzler, 2007). The classical symptom for SLE is a butterfly-shaped rash which is commonly seen on the face (Figure 1.1). In 1982 the American College of Rheumatology (ACR) described a set criterion (Table 1) (updated in 1997), for the diagnosis of SLE aiding clinicians to correctly diagnose patients. Four points of the criteria must be met, for a definite diagnosis of SLE. The criterion for SLE includes symptoms, immunological and haematological tests. Points 10 and 11 are of particular importance, as they are confirmatory of SLE. A study by Arbuckle et al, (2003) examined the onset of SLE in 130 patients and found that 115 patients had positive indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) ANA, before diagnosis. 1. Malar Rash A butterfly rash usually seen on the face 2. Discoid rash red, scaly patches on skin that cause scarring 3. Photosensitivity Skin rash as a result of unusual reaction to sunlight 4. Oral ulcers Oral or nasopharyngeal ulceration 5. Nonerosive Arthritis tenderness or swelling of joints 6. Pleuritis or Pericarditis Pleuritis inflammation of the pleura, the lining of the pleural cavity surrounding the lungs Pericarditis small amount of fluid builds up between the two layers of the pericardium. 7. Renal Disorder Persistent proteinuria Cellular castsmay be red cell, hemoglobin, granular, tubular, or mixed 8. Neurologic Disorder Seizures 9. Hematologic Disorder Hemolytic anemiawith reticulocytosis Leukopenia Lyphopenia Thrombocytopenia 10. Immunologic Disorder Anti-DNA: antibody to native DNA in abnormal titer Anti-Sm: presence of antibody to Sm nuclear antigen Positive finding of antiphospholipid antibodies on: 11. Positive Antinuclear Antibody An abnormal antinuclear antibody by immunofluorescence Once a positive ANA test has been performed there is no reason to repeat the test, however if clinicians have a strong suspicion of an evolving connective tissue disease (CTD) negative ANAs should be re-requested (Blerk et al, 2008). Other immunological tests such as complement components (C3 and C4), C-reactive protein, anti-phospholipid antibodies and anti-histone can also be tested to investigate SLE; however these may not always aid all patients (Egner, 2000). 1.3 History of ANA testing and how the diagnosis of SLE evolved The ANA test has been around for over 40 years and is the most widely performed autoantibody test, worldwide. The test is commonly performed within Immunology laboratories and has evolved very little over the years. ANAs originated from lupus erythrocytosms, also known as the LE cell phenomenon. LE cells were discovered in 1948 by Hargrave, who saw that patients with SLE have polymorphonuclear leukocytes, which had phagocytosed nuclei, within the bone marrow (Hepburn, 2001). Following the discovery, Lee et al, (1957) showed that the LE cells were formed by gamma proteins in leukocytes which were thought to be antibody. Fluorescent labels were also introduced in 1957, to show homogenous patterns on human tissue (Hughes et al, 2008). By 1961 rat sections substrates were introduced, enabling patterns such as homogenous, speckled and nucleolar to be seen in patients with rheumatic diseases. The use of rat substrates brought about a new discovery, which saw that washing cells in saline, c aused alterations to cells within slides, thus altering patterns seen, thus the precursor of the ENA screen was introduced. By the 1970-80s Human epithelioma type 2 cells: CCL-23 (HEp-2) substrates were widespread and National quality assurance schemes began to establish. 1.4 Techniques implemented in laboratories for ANA detection There are many techniques available for the testing of ANAs; these can be seen in the UK National External Quality Assessment Service (UKNEQAS) report found in Appendix 1. 1.4.1 Indirect immunoflourescent (IIF)-ANA Indirect immunoflourescent (IIF) is a general screening technique performed to identify patients with autoantibodies. It enables scientist to link autoantibody patterns present within a patient sera, to help diagnose and monitor their progress during treatment. ANA testing using IIF was developed by George Friou in 1957, where initially substrates such as chicken erythrocytes were used (Kumar et al, 2009). ANA substrates were traditionally prepared in-house using rodent tissue where thin layers of tissue were sliced using a cryostat. However as demand for the screening of autoantibodies increased (Figure 1.2), preparing slides was no longer feasible, as it was time consuming and laboratories could no longer manage rodent houses as they required expert attention. Commercial companies then began to produce ready to use tissues substrates, offering a greater sensitivity. However as many commercial substrates are now available, variability between kits, manufactures, substrate, conjugate and the degree of cellularity (good monolayer of cells and a number of mitotic spindles), make it difficult to standardise methods of detection and reporting. In order to produce accurate results, substrates must be present in the correct phase of the cell cycle (Figure 1.3). Identification of IIF-ANA patterns is dependant on the true state of chromosome. Most autoantibodies are directed against antigens expressed during interphase. Interphase is divided into 3 stages: G1, S and G2, where cytoplasmic organelles and fibres structure are most visible and the nucleoli appear well differentiated. A mix of mitotic and non mitotic forms of cells are needed in the metaphase stage as it is influential in interpreting IIF-ANA patterns, especially centromeres and homogenous patterns (Sacks et al, 2009). The HEp-2 substrate is commonly used in ANA detection and was introduced commercially in 1975 (Kavanaugh et al, 2000). HEp-2 provided a greater sensitivity for the testing of SLE as they were composed of human laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma, allowing the recognition of over 30 nuclear and cytoplasmic antigens (Gonzalez-Buitrego Gonzalez, 2006). HEp-2 substrate contains various organelles (Figure 1.4) allowing uniform distribution of cells, showing large nucleolus, meaning no interference of the intercellular matrix is seen (Gonzalez et al, 2002). The introduction of the HEp-2 substrate was a big step forward in identifying patients with the ribonucleoprotein complex (anti-Ro). The anti-Ro antigen is particularly significant in patients with SLE as it offers a poor prognosis. However this antigen is seen to overlap between different autoimmune diseases such as Sjà ¶grens syndrome, thus the detection of the antigen must be precise. The Ro (SS-A) antibody is seen to target protein antigens associated with small RNA molecules known as hY-RNAs11, 12 and are of unknown function (Cozzani et al, 2008). HEp-2 cells were seen to destroy the Ro antigens during fixation, so commercial companies began to devise ways around this. To overcome this problem, HEp-2 cells were genetically modified to produce extra Ro antigen and this substrate was known as HEp-2000. HEp-2000 substrate is uniquely produced by ImmunoConcepts (Sacramento CA, USA). The slides have 10-25% mitotic human epithelia and offer a greater sensitivity (Table 2) in the diag nosis of SLE. They have aided in reducing the number of ANA negative SLE patients; however detection of Ro is dependent on the stability of actin, as it can denature easily. Although HEp-2000 substrates were seen to be more beneficial in detection of Ro antigen, they limit the identification of the different epitopes of the Ro antigen. At present HEp-2000 substrate can only identify the 60kDA Ro antigen; but since the 52kDA Ro antigen also exists, patients with this epitope are missed. A study by Cozzani and colleagues (2008) looked at 5,949 people over a 5 year period. All participants were photosensitive and 2,315 of these had connective tissue disease (CTD) such as SLE. The study found that the anti-Ro was easy to identify on HEp-2000 slides with a sensitivity of 81% according to the Altman test, of accuracy. However a study by Bossuyt and Luyckx (2005) compared IIF to EIA and saw that patients with anti-Ro antibodies were missed using HEp-2000 slides, as the undetected patients contained the Ro 52 antibody; although they reported a sensitivity of 82.9%. One patient in this study was negative for IIF-ANA, but was shown to have a positive Ro antigen by EIA. A study by Dahle et al, (2004), looked at HEp-2 and compared three ANA methods; Enzyme immunoassay (EIA), double radial immunodiffusion (DRID) and IIF. 3,079 patients were examined and overlapping results between IIF and DRID were seen and 60% of IIF-ANA gave a positive homogenous pattern. However results for EIA showed that positive IIF results appeared negative by EIA. In 2006 the LGI performed a study looking at 18,320 samples, requesting ANA tests by IIF. The study found that 1 in 5 patients, identified as negative or weak positive by IIF, showed positive for anti-Ro via EIA. This proved that Hep2000 cells cant detect the different epitope of Ro, thus concludes that antigen-specific testing is required following the ANA test. This agrees with Morozzi et al, (2000), who suggest that a combination of 2 or more methods are required for the detection of the anti-Ro antibody in patients. This study looked at 64 people with connective tissue disorders and tested them by IIF, EIA and DRID. Results showed that 54 people were positive by at least one method and the specificity of each technique was good, whilst sensitivity varied. Sensitivity for IIF-ANA via HEp-2000 was 89%, EIA (Ro60) was 89%, EIA (Ro52) was 67% and DRID presented with a sensitivity of 76%. Although the NEQAS report shows that DRID is no longer used within laboratories, results from thi s study suggest that EIA has the ability to detect the different epitopes, preventing misreading of the anti-Ro antigen. Thus to ensure that all SLE patients are identified antigen-specific tests such as extractable nuclear antigen (ENA) should be used to detect the various epitopes (Cozzani et al, 2008). Conjugates play a significant role in the determination of IIF and EIA results. Fluorescein-conjugated antibodies produced from goat, sheep or rabbit are commonly used. These are usually bought from commercial companies, which produce pre-diluted conjugate, raised against mouse or human, which aims to achieve optimal sensitivity and reactivity. Immunoglobulin fraction can be also be used; however fluorescein conjugates such as fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) are preferred as they produce less background staining. A fluorescein/protein (FP) molar ratio is employed, with in-house diluted conjugates. The ratio varies between kits, however a 1:3 dilution with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) is usually used (Egner, 2000). At LGI the conjugate used for detection of ANAs is IgG, as it allows accurate diagnosis and monitoring of diseases such as SLE. IgM-ANA can also be employed, although this indicates milder or non-specific diseases, whilst IgA-ANA gives little information so arent used. Due to the use of fluorescence conjugate, slides fade overtime, thus it is particularly important to determine results as soon as possible as photographs are not taken. As IIF varies daily due to slides and condition of the microscope, it would be appropriate to carry out daily checkerboards to see which working dilution is best for the conjugate, improving consistency; however this is no longer feasible in high-throughput laboratories. When reporting ANA three factors require evaluation: the pattern observed; substrate used and the titre of the positive test. Experienced scientist can interpret ANA slides and distinguish titre levels; however this takes years of experience. The screening dilution is important in patients presenting with positive results, as it helps determine an individuals severity of disease and can prove beneficial to clinicians. Serial dilutions at 1:10, 1:20, 1:40, 1:80, 1:160 and 1:320 can be performed, where the titre value is the one at which positive sample becomes negative. 5% of a healthy population can present with a positive low ANA titre, with no disease activity and are commonly women aged over 60 (Shmerling, 2003). Peterson et al, (2009) found that beside patients with SLE patients, other diseases also present with positive ANA titres. 1:20 healthy people presented with a positive ANA and the number of positives increased to 1:3, with a dilution of 1:40. To reduce the number of fals e positives, titres are commonly performed at 1:80. At LGI titres were performed on all positive samples and pregnant women, regardless of whether they are positive or negative. Pregnant women are closely monitored as a precaution as IgG antibodies cross the placenta, thus anti-Ro/La antigen is capable of causing fetal heart block (Rahman Isenberg, 2008). Patients who presented with symptoms for SLE were also titrated; however lots of weak positive results were seen as a dilution of 1:40 was employed. As workload increased titrations became laborious and impractical, thus performing titres routinely was abolished and titres are now only performed upon request. Cut-offs exist, however these are modified around the local population, to give a better sensitivity (Stinton Fritzler, 2007). Shmerling, (2003) has suggested that ANA titres can correlate with disease activity, but as positive samples undergo antigen specific testing via EIA, titres should be abolished, unless there are specifically requested by the clinicians to monitor changes to disease. Wieser et al, (2001) found that there was a lack of correlation between the clinical features of patients and laboratory results obtained. The study looked at 3 cases with varying antibody titres and established algorithms seen in Figure 1.5. Similarly Hanley et al, (2009) suggested algorithms help in diagnostics (Appendix 2). As a small number of cases were analyses, it appears that there is not sufficient evidence to develop an algorithm; however both the studies have been adapted in Europe as they were seen to prevent patients with detectable antibodies being missed and to avoid the unnecessary testing and time of laboratory staff. Slide processors are available to prepare IIF slides. They first appeared in the late 1990s and include platforms such as ASP1200 and AFT from Binding Site (Figure 1.6). These slide processors ensure that all samples are prepared quickly, reliably and accurately, avoiding cross reactivity in sample preparation. Slide processors perform IIF via indirect antibody reactions as seen in Figure 1.7. Patient serum is incubated with a substrate, followed by washing to remove any unbound protein. A second antibody, FITC is added and this reacts with immunoglobulins which have combined with the substrate. Another washing stage is performed and slides are ready to be mounted and interpreted manually, however this causes subjectiveness. IIF-ANA result interpretation is dependent on the operators setup of the microscope, type and number of hours the bulb (mercury) has been used, type of objective lens, filters and most importantly magnification. At the LGI the Leica DMRB mercury microscope is employed and allows cells to magnify at X200, X400 and X500. Positive results fluoresce an apple-green colour (Table 3), whilst negative samples have little fluorescence. Two independent observers interpret the slides to prevent reading errors and any conflicting results are followed by an anti-ENA and anti-DNA screen. Automated commercial slide readers are now available to allow interpretation of ANAs. Images are automatically scanned and stored within computer systems, where positive and negative ANA results are determined by the amount of flourenscene emitted. The operator can then scan through positive ANAs, identifying their patterns. This aims to improve the subjectiveness seen between scientists and aims to improve accuracy; however these are not robust so not widely used. The advantage of IIF-ANA is that it is easy, inexpensive, available from a wide range of commercial companies, sensitive, reliable and has reduced cross reactivity and background fluorescence. The disadvantages of IIF-ANA are that it is laborious and requires a high degree of technical expertise. Within most Immunology laboratories the ANA test is not linked to the pathology computer systems, so tests cannot be picked up via an interface. This can be problematic as wrong samples can be analysed and reported. The use of barcode readers can overcome this problem. Homogenous Homogenous Pattern is the most common pattern seen in 60% of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) patients. However it can be seen in drug induced lupus, Rheumatoid Arthritis. Positive patients are then further evaluated against: Anti-dsDNA, Anti-Smith Speckled Speckled Pattern can exist as coarse expressing is Sm, U1-RNP antigen or fine expressing Ro or La. Sm positive is seen in 4-40% of SLE patients, whilst RNP is seen in high titres in patients with Mixed Connective Tissue Disease (MCTD). Patients with Scleroderma and Sjogrens Syndrome also present with positive results. Centromere Centromere pattern is seen in 57-82% of patients with CREST syndrome and Raynauds. The suspected antigen is CENP A, CENP B, CENP C. Nucleolar Nucleolar Pattern seen in patients with Scleroderma. There are multiple nuclear antigens, such as fibrilliarin. Positive patients are then further tested against Scl-70 (Anti-Topoisomerase I). Table 3: Shows the various ANA patterns seen by IIF on the HEp-2000 substrate (Produced by Nisha Lad, 2010) As different laboratories use different substrates and conjugates, IIF-ANA lacks standardisation worldwide (Bonilla, 2009). A study by Blerk et al, (2008) showed that if laboratories employed the same cells, substrate and conjugate they were able to report the same staining patterns. Over 157 laboratories across Belgium participated and each looked at 9 different samples. Looking at the results it is clear that after considering the variable factors, participants that employed the same HEp-2 slide substrates (Medica, USA) and method of detection were able to produce consistant results, suggesting standardization can be achieved. Although IIF-ANA is subjective, replacement with EIA or bead technology is suggested to increase sensitivity. Bonilla et al (2007) performed a study in the USA suggesting that IIF had a sensitivity of 90.6%, whilst bead technology had a sensitivity of 41.9% and the specificity of IIF was lower at 76%; however for bead technology was 87%. Having tested 385 patients a conclusion was made saying IIF was a better technique for diagnosis of patients with SLE. Olaussen and Rekvig (1999) also produced similar results, where two commercial IIF assays and two commercial ELISA kits consisting of a range of antigens, significant in the diagnosis of SLE were used. The study showed correlation between IIF and ELISA, where sensitivity for IIF was 88%, whilst that for ELISA was 86%. Specificity however varied with 67% for IIF and 60% for ELISA. Another study by Gonzalez et al, (2002), analysed 709 samples comparing IIF and EIA for the diagnosis of ANA. Results showed good reproducibility in both as says, but found that the antibodies which produced a homogenous and speckled IIF patterns were best detected via EIA. On the other hand a study by Nifli et al, (2006) compared routine technology in a selection of Clinical Immunology laboratories and analyzed 11088 samples, using IIF and ELISA at the University Hospital of Heraklion in Greece. Results showed a highly significant correlation for ANA performed by ELISA; however it suggested that as IIF had a low sensitivity of 58%, this could be replaced by multiplex technology, allowing multiple antigen measurement. Looking at these studies closely it appears that although there were similarities between technologies, different kits and manufacturers were used, producing variable results. 1.4.2 Antigen-specific assays for the detection of ANA Many different patterns can be seen by IIF-ANA, however to determine autoantibody specificity further antigen-specific assays are needed. Antibodies against Sm, native dsDNA and chromatin are used in the diagnosis of patients with SLE (Hanley et al, 2009). Currently ANAs are categorised into two main groups; ANA to DNA and histones (dsDNA) and ANA to extractable nuclear antigens (ENA). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), also known as an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) are now available for antigen specific testing, providing a new horizon for SLE testing, as they are able to identify individual antigens. ELISA/EIA is the most commonly performed technique, implemented in laboratories today. In the past, ELISA plates were assembled in-house, however as a successful assay requires careful assembly of the different layers, this soon became difficult to achieve, thus commercial ELISA kits were developed in the 1980s to overcome assay failure and to overcome the subjectiveness of IIF-ANA. The ELISA assay can be performed either manually or via automated technologies. 96 well plates coated with the same antigens are commonly used, however Phadia produce an EIA platform, whereby pens containing singles wells with individual antigens can be used, allowing multiple antigen recognition and analysis. Both ELISA/EIA operate via immunometric methods of detection for anti-ENAs and anti-DNAs. The principle (Figure 1.8) of this technique is via microplates which are coated with purified antigens of interest. Patient serum is incubated in the wells and unbound antibody is then washed away, followed by the addition of a conjugate such as alkaline phosphotase (AP) or horseradish peroxidase (HRP). Another wash stage is performed and colorimetric results develop, which are proportional to the initial concentration of antibody in the patients sample. Results are dependant on kit standards, which produce a calibration curve and then the optical density of the wells is taken to give a q uantitative result (Branda et al, 2009). ELISA are a versatile assay, where the amplification of the signal, increases the overall sensitivity of the assay, as it uses an antibody which are specific to the type of antigen/protein being measured. Studies suggest that ELISA is a sensitive assay, however lacks specificity so false positives results are detected (Castro and Gourley, 2009). The advantage of ELISA is that it can be performed both manually and via automation. Analysers can also be linked to the pathology computer systems, preventing transcription errors in result interpretation. However disadvantages for ELISA are that purified antigens need to be prepared via HPLC, meaning assays are not cost effective and can be time-consuming. As microtitre plates are now purchased with one antigen, there is a limited dynamic range of detection; however EIA pens now overcome this problem. To produce successful assays, instrumental conditions need to be carefully considered. Washing errors, contamination of substrate or inadequa te incubation times may produce little signal amplification resulting in false negative results (Castro and Gourley, 2010). 1.4.2.1 Anti-dsDNA Anti-dsDNA were first described in 1957, by Ceppelini and colleagues. Anti-dsDNA are found in patients with SLE and are mainly found in the form of nucleosomes. Nucleosomes are fragments of chromatin that cells release during apoptosis. dsDNA antibodies bind to the nucleosome to form complexes which settle in the glomeruli, resulting in glomerulonephritis and increasing the risk of lupus nephritis flare, thus detection is crucial as it helps to determine the therapy required for treatment. à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡-actinin (100kDA) is a microfilament skeletal muscle protein, which aids in maintaining the function of podocytes in the kidney. This protein is not specific for SLE, although it can act as a marker for renal involvement (Raheman et al, 2008). The dsDNA assay can be performed via (Figure 1.9); IIF with Crithidia luciliae substrate (CLIF), Farr assay also known as radioimmunoassay (RIA), however the most commonly used technique is EIA/ELISA as described in 1.4.2. The Farr assay is regarded as the gold standard technique for the detection of dsDNA (Launey et al, 2010). It uses cultured cells labelled with thymidine and idocythidine, which act as radioactive DNA. In the assay bound and free DNA is separated by precipitating immuglobulins and ammonium sulphate. Although this method is good, it misses low avidity anti-DNA antibodies due to a nitrocellular filter, which allows the passage of free DNA and however double stranded DNA (dsDNA) cannot be filtered. Thus the radioactivity is said to be proportional to serum anti-DNA (Isenberg Smeenk, 2002). The Farr assay can detect high affinity antibodies, with relatively high specificity; however it requires precision in pipetting as there must be sufficient labelled DNA to bind to samples in order to reach an endpoint. Although the use of radiolabels within the Farr assay provides highly reproducible results, it becomes very costly, dangerous and difficult to dispose of the radioactive isotopes. Other limitations with this assay are that it only detects IgG and cannot determine any other immunoglobulin isotopes (IgA/IgM), thus patients presenting with dsDNA antibodies to IgA/IgM can be missed (Egner 2000). UK NEQAS shows that the Farr assay is still being used (Figure 1.9), as it is a more accurate confirmatory test that can be used in the diagnosis of SLE. The accuracy of the Farr assay can be seen in many studies. A study by Launey and colleagues (2010) compared the Farr radioimmunoassay to three commercial enzyme immuoassays and CLIF staining. The study looked at 99 patients with SLE and found that the Farr assay was the best assay, offering greater sensitivity and specificity of 95%, than the three other ELIA and CLIF assays. Derksen et al, (2002) also showed similar results. He compared the Fa rr assay with the Varelisa EIA assay and found that the Farr assay was superior to the EIA assay as it presented with a specificity of 95% and a sensitivity of 72%, whilst in EIA specificity corresponded to sensitivities at 44%. Many laboratories also perform follow-up DNA tests by EIA, using CLIF to determine the avidity of anti-dsDNA antibodies. However CLIF can also be used alongside IIF to measure anti-DNA (IIF-DNA) and this does not requiring any specialist equipment, other than a fluorescence microscope. The CLIF assay allows detection of high affinity antibodies through titrations, however this requires precise pipetting. CLIF detects antibodies to kinetoplast of organisms, which consists of circular dsDNA and allows both IgG-anti-dsDNA and IgM-anti-dsDNA to be tested (Gonzalez-Buiterego Gonzalez, 2006). The test is highly reproducible and is particularly suitable for a limited number of samples. Although the assay offers the highest specificity for ANA testing, it has a relatively low diagnostic sensitivity for SLE. Due to the degree of accuracy of the Farr assay, it is undoubtedly the best assay for the detection of dsDNA and so has been approved by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and operates under the WHO80-IRP standard. However due to the risk of handling radioactive substance and the cost of the assay; this is not routinely used within Immunology. 1.4.2.2 Anti-ENA Positive IIF-ANA are typically followed up by extractable nuclear antigens (ENA). ENAs were discovered in 1966 by Smith and colleagues, offering a greater specificity, to allow a more accurate disease diagnosis, in correlation to the initial IIF-ANA screen. Originally ENAs referred to proteins found in a saline extract of cell nuclei, however since then the components have been identified and these consist of cytoplasmic molecules. A whole spectrum of approximately 100 antigens can be screened; however most have no clinical significance. In order to cover the majority of inflammatory autoimmune diseases 6 clinically significant antigens (Table 4); Ro, La, Sm, RNP, Scl-70 and Jo1 are used within most laboratories across the UK. It can be seen that SLE is associated with many of the antigens in the screen. Although ENAs are commonly performed via EIA (Figure 1.10), other methods such as qualitative gel precipitation assays, passive haemagglutination, immunoblotting, counter current immunoelectrophoresis (CIE) and antigen microarray can also be used (Kumar et al, 2009). Sceening of ENAs is expensive in comparison to IIF-ANA as it allows specific antigen detection, offering a greater sensitivity as approximately 90% of positive IIF-ANA produce negative results via EIA (Dahle et al, 2004). Gel precipitation assays such as double immunodiffusion (DID) and counter current immunoelectrophoresis (CIE) are still being used within laboratories; however these were discovered over 5 decades ago. CIE uses an electric current to accelerate the migration of antibody

To View or Not To View :: Media News Television Essays

To View or Not To View Staying in touch with the outside world, via the 10:00 evening news, has become increasingly difficult for me the last couple years. Not only am I usually not awake at 10:00, but if I am, I do not want to spend my time hearing about the many murders, rapes, and robberies that plaque our city. Television news has not only taken on a tabloid-like feel, but the substance of most of the news stories is a total waste of my viewing time. However, in an effort to stay connected, I currently listen to the morning TV news as well as read the Chicago Tribune on a daily basis. The local news broadcast I taped to critique for this paper was the 5:00 News on Channel 5 which was shown on Monday, April 7, co-anchored by Joan Esposito, a 30ish white female, and Warren Saunders, a late 50's black male. I viewed a total of 13 stories which were comprised mainly of murder, weather and informational topics. The "Top Story" was about a 7 year old girl who was murdered by a gang member while she was waiting in line to get ice cream. The story's time went for approximately 4 minutes and included 3 interviews of people, 3 different on-screen captions and a camera span of teddy bears on a fence. The actual meaty parts of this story, that is, the facts, were fully given in this broadcast. However, interviews with crying persons of the gang members' families, and the little girl's school superintendent musing out loud on what this little girl could have become, was a total waste of time. Conversely, scanning the teddy bears was touching, but lent nothing to the telling of the tragic event that took this girl's life. I suppose the "powers that be" at the news station do not feel the public can feel on their own, thus we are constantly being given visual reminders of how sad a story is. I can safely say that the Top Story of the majority of broadcasts that I view are murders. Based on that premise, the senseless murder of this child was an important story in Chicago that day. I do take exception, however, to the many visuals used to evoke emotion as the sadness of the story spoke for itself. Apart from this story, the only remaining "news stories" consisted of a murder of a cab driver and two stories of missing persons.

Id, Ego and Superego in Literature Essay

Within Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, Marlow asserts that â€Å"the mind of man is capable of anything–because everything is in it, all the past as well as all the future† (HOD 109.) As Marlow journeys deeper into the Congo he is forced to adapt to the jungle environment and in the process he begins to lose his understanding of societal rules and ideals. His â€Å"psychological self† is coerced into adapting to the rustic environment of the Congo hence disturbing the balance between his id, ego and superego. William Golding’s Lord of the Flies similarly deals with this deteriorating awareness of societal standards in foreign environments, but does so with a group of young boys on an uninhabited island. Throughout Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and William Golding’s Lord of the Flies Marlow, Kurtz and the boys clearly demonstrate the capacity of the human mind in reflection to the principles of Sigmund Freud according to his defi nition of the id, ego and superego. Read more: Jack quotes lord of the flies essay In Heart of Darkness, Marlow demonstrates the capability of the human mind as he makes his journey up the Congo River and adapts to the savage environment that surrounds him. While adapting to his environment, Marlow begins to disregard societal standards and hence his â€Å"psychological sense† is altered in that Marlow’s ego and super ego subside in his overall nature, resorting to the â€Å"pleasure principle† that we now call the id. Marlow’s id begins to cease control of his personality and his innate instinctive nature is released. It is this imbalance of his â€Å"psychological self† which acts as an instigator for the evil found in him and all men. When Marlow states that â€Å"Going up that river was like traveling back to the earliest beginnings of the world,† (HOD 105) he is trying to depict his journey up the river as a representation of his discovery of the innate wickedness present in all mankind. The disappearance of Marlowâ₠¬â„¢s super ego is imminent throughout his journey up the Congo. The presence of authority, society, and civilized people begin to fade just as his concepts of right and wrong are lost as he journeys further on and thus the innate wickedness of man emerges. Marlow’s savagery is the result of adaptation and the growing disproportion of his id to his ego and super ego. His disregarding of his ego and super ego can be seen when he says, â€Å"but if you try to shout I’ll smash your head with’†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢I will throttle you for good† (HOD 148.) This statement confirms that Marlow  is straying further from the ideals of society and shows that Marlow’s perceived self is making a transition from being civilized (superego) to becoming a savage (id.) When Marlow meets Kurtz, he finds a man that has totally thrown off the restraints of his own ego/superego and has deteriorated into the primitive state of the id. Therefore Kurtz serves as an excellent example of Marlow’s assertion in that he has forgotten society to such an extent that he does not even remember his life in Europe. Kurtz’s isolation in Africa as well as his unbelievable power over the natives corrupted him and drove him to condone unspeakable acts such as cannibalism and human sacrifice (destruction/Thanatos=pleasure for Kurtz.) In Heart of Darkness, Kurtz’s last words depict his terror and his realization of his final fate, â€Å"The horror! The horror!† (HOD 154) Kurtz realizes how far he has strayed from society, and finally admits to his evil acts in Africa. Hence, it was the imbalance of the characters â€Å"psychological selves† due to displacement from society (society gave them the sense of right and wrong) that caused the innate evil to reveal itself in the characters Marlow and Kurtz. The augmented id created a disproportion between the other counterparts of the â€Å"psychological self† and thus facilitated the intrinsically evil nature of all men including Marlow and Kurtz. In William Golding’s Lord of the Flies, the boys are reduced to an instinctive and almost animalistic state due to the lack of authority and society, as well as the need to adapt to a new primordial surrounding. The boys are stranded on an island by themselves and must adapt in order to assure their survival. When they first arrive the boys act in an orderly fashion, and begin the construction of a governmental system to parallel a functional society. This system is representative of the boy’s super egos. This system soon fails however, when the boys learn that they must revert to their animal instincts (id) in order to survive. This transition from being civilized to becoming savage is revealed in the book when the narrator states, â€Å"They bumped Piggy, who was burnt and yelled and danced. Immediately, Ralph and the crowd of boys were united and relieved by a storm of laughter† (LOTF 149.) This example simply depicts the great change that has occurred among t he boys in that they further hurt Piggy’s burn wound on the account of carelessness while playing a savage like game. The fact that  none of the children apologize for their acts further prove the transition of the boys from being civilized to becoming savage-like. The simple fact that a group of choirboys, who were exemplary individuals, could change into savages that kill one another further proves Marlow’s assertion that the mind is capable of anything. At the end of Lord of the Flies, the boys come to realize the transformation of their initial choirboy natures when they are confronted with authority in the form of a naval officer. The narrator states that â€Å"One of them came close to the officer and looked up. I’m†¦I’m; but there was no more to come† (LOTF 201.) Percival has changed so much throughout his time on the island that he cannot even recall his own name. On the whole, three characters can be linked with each of the three psychodynamic principles: Jack represents the id with his constant desire to hunt and kill (death drive,) Ralph represents the ego with his attempts to satisfy both sides of his own mind and others on a greater level while keeping in touch with reality, and Piggy represents the superego by acting as the conscience for the group, maintaining the very principles that the boys have lost. If one were to look at this novel as an analysis of the individuals one would perhaps miss out on the greater picture. By combining the characteristics and actions of all the characters you can really see the greater picture of what Freud describes in his theories. Both Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and William Golding’s Lord of the Flies contain characters that are changed from civilized beings, that are able to balance the urges of the id and constraints of the ego/superego, into savages. Within the novels the lack of authority and society as well as the presence of a primeval surrounding causes the innate evil within man to awaken. By removing societal pressures and surroundings, the instinctive id nature overpowers mans ego and super ego. This disturbance in equilibrium causes the innate evil found in all people to manifest itself. Freud’s conception of the human psyche illustrated that the majority of what we experience in our lives, the underlying emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most of what drives us is buried in our unconscious. Like mentioned above, these choirboys and sophisticated Europeans never imagined that they would be  acting as they did when they reached their respective destinations. The immense unconscious id took over in many of the characters but when brought back into society returned to their previous balances. Books used William Golding’s Lord of the Flies, published in 1959 by Perigee Trade Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, published in 1997 by Mass Market Paperback

SAT Summer Prep Programs Should You Join

SAT Summer Prep Programs Should You Join SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips What are SAT Prep Summer Programs and should you use them? There are a lot of variations in SAT summer programs and the hours of study they offer.Other than time, the greatest variation in SAT summer programs is through price. There are commercial and noncommerical options and they vary by price and hours offered, as well as the material used. No matter the course, a good program will offer at least once a week test. Advantages and disadvantages to a summer only program On the one hand you might find it easier to focus on only one thing during the summer, so a summer prep program might seem ideal. However, you might already be drained from a long and difficult school year and just want a break.A summer camp environment and attitude can alsobe distracting, and you might not learn as much as you would have withalternative methods. If you are set on a summer camp though, you should check out our article on SAT summer camps. Moreover, since its summer, you may feel youhave time for intensive study and put in many hours. But, you might find that you end up putting in too many hours and burn yourselfout by the time the test comes around.In the end, many find that an hour or two every day over a longer period of time is much more manageable than the 6-8 hours per day that might be required from an official SAT boot camp BUT! You don't need to do an SAT summer boot camp for intensive study While an SAT summer camp or boot camp is good for forcing you to invest a lot of time into SAT prep, you don't need a boot camp for intensive study. And when you put in a lot of hours, then your scores will improve, regardless of where you do it. But keep in mind that just because you can, doens't mean you should!While you may be able to concentrate more hours in the summer, some students may find this overwhelming. For them, it may be better to spread out any studying over a longer period of time. What are the alternatives? Online SAT prep: allows you to set the schedule, costs significantly less and lets you move at a pace comfortable for you, while also allowing for specialized instruction Either online or local, individual SAT prep with a tutor: this would give you personal attention but also be much more affordable than an SAT summer camp. Tutors will test you on your weaknesses and guide your study, but they are mainly a supplement to more extensive study on your own time. Studying on your own: with proper strategies, even studying on your own can be as effective, and far more cost friendly. You can find plenty of online resources that can guide your self study. If you are thinking of self study, plan to set aside at least one week to preparing a course of study for your summer. And then, follow it. Use the free resources at PrepScholar to help you plan out your SAT summer self study.Check out our links on the side or at the bottom of this article to get you started. Or start a free trial at our program, designed to tailor sat prep to your needs, right in your own home. What are the disadvantages of self study? Self study can be inexpensive and flexible, and it can fit to any schedule. However, it can be difficult to maintain discipline on your own and not everyone can do it. First, you will need to analyze your own performance objectively and not everyone can do that easily. Second, you will need to maintain a strict schedule with no outside supervision. Lastly, you will need to research and select the study material on your own, which may take time that you don't have. How to tailor an online program to the summer? If you plan to study during the summer, then the smartest things you can do is to maximize the hours you devote to study so that you won't have to worry about this during the school year. Since you can now devote hours at a time, you should use that time to do plenty of practice tests! The more practice tests you do, the greater the improvement in scores you will see.If its feasible, you can study just four hours every weekday and still study upto 20 hours a week, which is as good as many summer programs.Then,if you find that you have four spare hours - optimize that time. Do a timed practice test! It will make you more familiar with the test and allow your brain to further familiarize itself with the question types. What’s Next? Check out our other article on SAT Summer ideas- Should you really join a SAT Summer Camp?or our 5 Step SAT/ACT Test Dates and Study Plan for Summer before Senior Year. For those interested, check out our article on Summer Institutes for the Gifted. If you scored a 2200 or above on your recent SATs, then consider whether you need to retake it! Want to improve your SAT score by 240 points?We've written a guide about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Every AP Literature Practice Test Available Free and Official

Every AP Literature Practice Test Available Free and Official SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips When you’re studying for your AP Literature Exam, you’re going to want to use practice tests and questions to hone your skills. But where can you find AP literature practice tests? And are all practice exams equally useful for you? The real exam has 55 multiple-choice questions and three free-response questions, but there are practice tests with every conceivable number and combination of question types. In this article, you’ll learn where to find every official College Board AP English Literature and Composition practice exam, free unofficial tests, and paid practice test resources. You’ll also find out which tests are high-quality and how you can best use different practice exams to fulfill your studying needs. Official Free AP Literature Practice Tests The gold standard of AP English Literature practice tests and AP English Literature practice exam questions are College Board released materials. That’s because the College Board administers the AP exams, so their practice questions are most like the actual AP questions you’ll see on the test. There are three different kinds of resources offered by the College Board: complete released exams from past years, released free-response questions from past years, and sample questions from the â€Å"AP Course And Exam Description.† Official Released College Board Exams There are three official released College Board Exams. However, only the most recent one (from 2012) is complete. The 1999 and 1987 exams have the standard 55 multiple-choice questions, but both are missing parts of the three question free-response section. You can still use them as complete exams if you supplement them with released free-response questions from past years which we recommend since official multiple-choice problems are hard to come by. 2012 AP English Literature and Composition Exam This is the best AP Lit practice test available. It's the most recent exam released by the College Board, and it follows the format of the current test with 55 multiple-choice questions and three free-response questions. Definitely make use of this test! 1999 AP English Literature and Composition Exam This test excludes the poetry and prose analysis questions of the free-response section and only has the student choice question.So, to take itas a complete exam, you’d need to supplement it with questions 1 and 2 from the released free-response questions below. You can actually getquestion 2for the 1999 test from the official free-response questions bank, but the excerpt for question 1 can’t be reprinted, so you’ll need to supplement with another poetry analysis question. 1987 AP English Literature and Composition ExamFor reasons that are not totally clear, this exam excludes the third essay question, the poetry analysis. If you want to take this as â€Å"complete† exam practice, use a free-response poetry analysis prompt from the bank of free response questions linked to below. Or supplement with this tree-poem. Official Free-Response Questions There may not be very many complete released exams, but there are tons of free-response questions available from previous administrations of the test. These are great practice, not just for practicing complete essays, but for practicing writing thesis statements, outlines, and so on. What’s also great about these is that most of them come with sample response and scoring guidelines, so you’ll be able to see exactly what makes a high-quality AP essay by College Board standards.Be aware, though, that some of the prose and poetry excerpts can’t be reprinted due to copyright concerns. Below isthe link to all the free-response questions available.The questions go all the way back to 1999, and since there haven't been many changes to the free-response part of the exam, all of these questions can be useful during your studying. AP English Lit Free Response Questions 1999-2019 Sample Questions From the Course and Exam Description The AP English Literature Course and Exam Description has practice multiple-choice questions and free-response questions. They don’t add up to a complete testthere are only 46 multiple-choice questions and a whopping six free response (enough for two tests!)but they are great for simple practice. Your Teacher Your AP teacher may have access to copies of old AP exams that you can use for practice. She probably can’t let you take them out of the classroom, but she may be allowed to loan them to you in a supervised setting. This is because teachers can purchase resources directly from the College Board that students can’t. Asking your teacher may not bear fruit, but it’s worth a try. Why are you asking me for AP lit practice tests? I'm your econ teacher! Free Unofficial AP Literature Practice Tests In addition to the free College Board resources, there are also several places online where you can get free, unofficial practice tests. Be aware that, because these resources aren’t College-Board created or approved, they are of variable quality. For each of these resources I’ll describe what’s offered and how it compares to official College Board tests. Barron’s Books Free Practice Test Barron’s, those distinguished makers of review books, also offer a complete free practice test with multiple choice and free response.They provide the author and name of the work, but not the date. All of these free resources probably credit the authors for copyright reasons, but you won’t have this information on the actual exam. You can take the test timed or in â€Å"practice† mode.While answers are provided for the multiple-choice questions, no scoring guidelines are provided for the free-response prompts. This isn’t an official resource, but the questions are high quality and a good option when you’ve run out of official material. If you combined the multiple-choice questions with some official released free-response questions (with scoring guidelines and sample essays) you could geta pretty good approximation of a complete practice test. Varsity Tutors AP Literature Practice Tests This site has practice multiple-choice quizzes divided by conceptthings like â€Å"interpreting the passage,† â€Å"claims and argument,† and â€Å"interpreting excerpts.† The questions aren’t worded exactly the same way as AP test questions, but they are still okay for testing your passage-interpretation skills. Basically, the questions test for similar skills, but don’t necessarily mimic AP test questions in style. Also, the site provides the date, title, and author of each work, which is not something you’ll receive on the AP exam.You can make a free account at the site to track your scores, but it’s not necessary to be able to take the tests. Kittens not included with free practice tests, unfortunately. Albert AP English Literature Quizzes Albert offers multiple-choice quizzes divided into prose, poetry, and drama categories. You are given the title, date, and author of the workwhich you will not receive on the real AP exam. Like the Varsity Tutors quizzes, Albert offers questions that test similar skills as the AP exam, but the questions are worded differently. High School Test Prep Tests This site offers three short multiple-choice practice tests. You’re given the title and author of the work. The questions for these tests are fairly surface-level, so I would only use these if you are working on your reading comprehension skills. CrackAP English Literature Quizzes CrackAP has over 40 short AP Lit quizzes. Each quiz gives a passage then has 15 multiple-choice questions on it. The questions are somewhat easier than you'll find on the real AP exam, but if you need some quick practice, this can do the trick. Practice Quiz AP English Literature This site offers a 20-question multiple-choice quiz on two passagesone poetry, and one prose. The passages are extremely basic, however, so again, I would only use this resource if you are working on your reading comprehension skills. 4Tests AP English Lit Test This site offers 35 multiple-choice questions. However, there are lots of ads, the questions are poorly written and vague, the interface is clunky, and the passages are very long. Overall, I do not recommend this site. College Board SAT Literature Materials While they aren’t identical by any means, you can definitely use SAT Literature Subject Test practice questions to hone your skill in answering multiple-choice questions about passages. The SAT Subject Test in Literature focuses a little more on the meaning of words and phrases in context and less on making inferences and describing the author’s purpose, but they can still be a useful resource simply for reading and answering high-level, in-depth questions on prose and poetry. You can get sample SAT Literature questions online hereor in the â€Å"The SAT Subject Tests Student Guide† booklet released by the College Board. The queens of AP Lit practice give you their blessing. Paid Unofficial Practice Tests There are also several paid resources that offer unofficial practice questions. Shmoop This is a subscription service with questions for tons of different testsSAT, ACT, AP exams.They also have videos and other review resources. I can’t really speak to the quality of the questions because the entire service is behind a paywall of about $25 a month. Review Books Most, if not all, review books contain practice tests and questions. These will vary in quality depending on the quality of the review book, so be sure to look for reviews online of any book before you buy it. In general, Barron’s and the Princeton Review are fairly reliable review book sources. I definitely advise paying for all of these resources with whatever loose foreign change you have lying around. How to Use AP Literature Practice Tests How to use a given practice test depends somewhat on the resource itself. I’ll offer some recommendations here on how to best use different resources. Complete Official Released Tests The best way to use a complete official practice test is to do a practice-run for the exam. So find a quiet room, bring a timer or watch so you can time sections, and get to work! This will help you get familiar with the exam experience so you’ll feel more comfortable on exam day! Since there are two complete AP Lit practice tests, it makes sense to take one early on in your studying time, and one later. You can get a parent, tutor or teacher to grade the exams. The early test will help you figure out what you need to work on, and the later test will show you how you’ve improved! Since the AP English Literature test is more skills-heavy than content-heavy, you shouldn’t feel totally lost taking a practice test even in the middle of the school year. Official Released Free-Response and Sample Questions Official resources that aren’t complete tests are best for practicing individual sections of the test. The sample multiple-choice questions in the â€Å"Course and Exam Description† make for great AP English Literature multiple-choice practicethey’ll help you get familiar with the style of the questions and practice close-reading. The wealth of released free-response questions are great resources for building your timed essay-writing skills. You can practice complete essays ordevelop essay outlines. Unofficial Practice Tests and Resources Since unofficial practice tests aren’t going to be quite as similar to the real AP exam as official College Board materials, they won’t be quite as useful for preparing for the format of the exam or its questions. However, they can be very valuable close-reading practice. And since that’s a critical skill for the exam, it’s still worth it to use unofficial resources. Be very quiet. She's close-reading. Key Takeaways Practice tests and questions are a hugely important resource as you prep for the AP Lit exam. The gold standard of practice resources are those that come from the College Board, but there are many other places where you can get practice questions that will help you hone your close-reading skills for the exam.Most of the resources listed in this article are free, but a few are paid. When you’ve assembled a stable of practice resources, you might not be quite sure how to use them. Official College Board practice tests are best for simulating the exam experience. College Board questions are good for focused preparation for individual sections of the examespecially the essays. Unofficial resources are best for further honing your close-reading skills. Now that you know where to find these resources,you’ll have even more time to prep for the AP Literature exam by completing practice questions! What's Next? Wondering what you should be reading for AP Lit? Check out our list of 127 great books to help you prepare for the AP Literature exam. Need more study guidance for your APs? See my five-step AP prep plan.Or see our guide on when to start studying for your APs. If you're looking for practice tests for other AP exams, see our assembled practice tests for AP US History, AP Chemistry, AP Biology, AP World History, and AP Psychology. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now: